Sino-pakistani relations in the sphere of military-technical cooperation in the second half of the 20th and early 21st centuries

The paper presents the evolution of SinoPakistani military-technical cooperation (MTC) in the second half of the 20th and early 21st centuries: from its inception and the establishment of a political-diplomatic foundation in the 1960s, through the expansion of interaction in the 1970s– 1990s, to the transition toward large-scale joint projects in the 21st century. The aim is to identify the main stages and internal logic of the development of MTC between China and Pakistan, as well as its limitations. The source base includes Russian, Chinese, Pakistani, and other materials in Russian, English, and Chinese, encompassing official documents, academic studies, and analytical reports from leading international research centers. The study applies methods of analysis, comparison, generalization, and classification, along with historical-chronological and systemic approaches. The findings reveal a shift from episodic arms deliveries and military assistance to an institutionalized partnership and full-cycle cooperation in the 21st century, including joint development and localization of weapons systems, modernization programs, and the deployment of new military systems. Expert assessments underline Pakistan’s growing technological and operational dependence on China in the military sphere. At the same time, several structural constraints are identified: technological asymmetry and dependence on critical components, financial vulnerability of major defense programs, concentration of imports from a single supplier, and risks related to supply chains and after-sales support. Overall, militarytechnical cooperation has become a cornerstone of the strategic partnership between China and Pakistan, ensuring the accelerated modernization of Pakistan’s armed forces while reinforcing their technological dependence on China’s defense industry.

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